Juliet Margaret Hunter, M.Ed.
Graduate Student
School Psychology Program
Youngstown State University
Carrie Jackson, D.Ed, NCSP
Assistant Professor
School Psychology Program
Youngstown State University
The relationship of physical activity effecting brain-based behavior had been formulated upon conclusions from incomplete evidence for centuries Pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations for the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations (Mastin, 2008). Thales of Miletus (624-546 B.C.) was one of the Seven Sages of Greece and is regarded as the first philosopher in the Western tradition. He postulated that both body and mind were necessary for a balanced, “happy” man. Thales of Miletus concluded that man should be, “healthy in body, resourceful in soul and of a readily teachable nature”(Mastin, 2008, n.p.). Plato (424–347 B.C.), an accredited athlete and scholar, accentuated the importance of physical exercise in the development of the human mind.
Haynes (2012) wrote in the New York Times:
“(Plato) spoke strongly on behalf of the virtues of physical education. He felt that one should balance physical training with “cultivating the mind,” exercising “the intellect in study.” The goal “is to bring the two elements into tune with one another by adjusting the tension of each to the right pitch.”…Plato recounting the words of Socrates. “Excessive emphasis on athletics produces an excessively uncivilized type, while a purely literary training leaves men indecently soft”(Haynes, n.p.).
Juvenal’s centuries-old statement to pray for a healthy mind (mens sana) in a healthy body (corpore sano) is found in his tenth Satire and is a utilized mantra in modern day sports to emphasize the importance of the brain body balance. There have been many studies probing a relationship between the effects of physical activity and brain-based behaviors. In President Bush’s Presidential Proclamation 6158 identified January 1, 1990 thru December 31, 1999 as The Decade of the Brain, he proclaimed:
“The human brain, a 3-pound mass of interwoven nerve cells that controls our activity, is one of the most magnificent--and mysterious--wonders of creation. The seat of human intelligence, interpreter of senses, and controller of movement, this incredible organ continues to intrigue scientists and layman alike.”
This decade provided insight to theories young and old, and continues to facilitate many new conceptions. The present research was conducted with the purpose of assessing whether disabled students would increase time on task if educational kinesiology using Go Noodle ® was utilized in school based curriculum. The data for the present research was gathered via self-report surveys reported by target students, special education teachers, and interviews with school officials, including the school psychologist.
Rationale
Tomporowski, P., Davis, C., Miller, P., and Nagliari, J. (2009) reviewed the findings of research pertaining to the impact of physical activity on academic performance. The researchers reported the greatest gain in the area of executive functioning; children’s development of executive function is believed to be the cornerstone for the emergence of both psychological processes and social behaviors (Tomporowski et al., pp. 113). The literature review provided indication that children who are more physically active generate greater cortical stimulation, and consequently preform greater cognitively, when compared to students with little or no physical activity incorporated into the classroom curriculum. Significant associations illustrated within the analysis include processing speed, response accuracy, creativity, and scholastic achievement. Lees and Hopkins (2013) reported evidence that aerobic-based physical activity generates structural changes in the brain, such as neurogenesis, angiogenesis, increased hippocampal volume, and connectivity. A positive relationship has been detected between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory.
The researchers hypothesized: “exercise may prove to be a simple, yet important, method of enhancing those aspects of children’s mental functioning central to cognitive development” (Tomporowiski et al., 2009, pp.113). Physical activity in schools has been shown to be indirectly associated with academic achievement including lower dropout rates, better classroom behavior, self-esteem and engagement in school, and on-task behavior (Mahar, 2006; Trudeau, 2008).
Literature Review
Fedewa and Clark reported “limited research looking at the amount of recess time in schools is inconsistent, but there is evidence that school administrators view recess as expendable” (Fedewa & Clark, n.d; Simon & Childers, 2006). Donnelly and Lambourne (2011) reported physical activity in public schools has steadily declined since the 1970’s and The United States Department of Health and Human Services determined physical inactivity as a serious problem and major public health concern for people of all ages (USDHHS, 2008). According to the latest international Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) study, less than two-thirds of all young people report participating in sufficient physical activity to meet current guidelines (Center for Disease Control, 2008).
The Federal Common Core Standards, which most states have adopted, require rigorous demands of both teachers and students, increasing sedentary instruction time and decreasing time for movement and exercise (Lotta, 2015). Across this nation there is a legitimate and growing concern about school budget limitations, inadequate resources, and increasing pressure among teachers and administrators has been pervasive. However, incorporating physical activity into the school day is an inexpensive and effective positive behavioral support intervention for improving behavior and academic outcomes for all students. As agents of change, school psychologists can be instrumental in promoting school time as the most viable time and important environment for physical activity interventions. School psychologists may also prove to be instrumental in encouraging and assisting teachers and paraprofessionals with the implementation of physical activity without missing instructional time designated for academics. This technique would simultaneously improve students’ physical and mental health outcomes.
There is no evidence to support the argument that increasing the time allotted to physical activity during the school day results in decreased academic performance (Donnelly & Lambourne, 2011). The inclusion of exercise programs within schoolbased settings fits within the ecology of student views of school and therefore is far less likely to be met with resistance than would standard therapeutic interventions (Lees & Hopkins, 2013). Programs incorporating physical activity may serve as a positive and effective intervention impacting the educational system outcomes.
Rationale
Youth with disabilities may not receive the benefit from the effects of exercise on cardiovascular fitness and brain health since they may be less active than their non-disabled peers due to physical limitations, and lack of opportunities. Physical education is not offered on a daily basis in most schools, for the whole year. Often, students have one quarter or semester of gym for each year. Students with special needs may have adapted physical education; these students receive comparable hours of physical education as their nondisabled peers. Case-Smith, Weaver, & Fristad (2015) reported, “sensory processing problems in Autism Spectrum Disorder are believed to be an underlying factor related to behavioral and/or functional performance problems” (Case-Smith et al., 2015, pp. 134). Franklin, Deitz, Jirikowic, and Astley’s (2008) study of children with fetal alcohol syndrome disorders (FASD) examined the relationship between sensory processing and behavior concluded that children with FASD demonstrate sensory processing deficits co-occurring with problem behaviors (Franklin et al., 2008 p.265). Baranek et al. (2002) found support that links children with Fragile X Syndrome and sensory processing disorders. Introductory research between physical activity and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has also alluded to positive correlations (Trudeau & Shephard, 2008).
The Sensory Processing Disorder Foundation (SPDF) reports that although Sensory Processing Disorder has comorbidity with disorders such as ASD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, etc., the disorder quite often occurs in the absence of other disorders (SPDF, 2015). The Sensory Processing Disorder Foundation (2015) noted:
“One study (Ahn, Miller, Milberger, & McIntosh, 2004) shows that at least 1 in 20 children’s daily life is affected by SPD. Another research study by the Sensory Prossessing Disorder Scientific Work Group (Ben-Sasson, Carter, & Briggs-Gowen, 2009) suggest that 1 in 6 children experiences sensory symptoms that may be significant enough to affect aspects of everyday life functioning.”
Sensory Disorders occur on a spectrum. Some individuals may only have one sense affected, while others may have more severe discrepancies from the “norm.” Cheng and Boggett-Carsjens (2005) believe inflexibility and opposition reflected an inability to self-regulate and inconsistent responses of having a good day or bad day is the consequence of a neurological condition. Thus, it is imperative for students with and without special needs to have vestibular and proprioceptive integration, included in the Go Noodle ®, for optimal learning to occur.
The life skills classroom at Hunter’s Junior/ Senior High School has twelve students. Out of the twelve students, seven are receiving special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) category of Autism, two are classified as students with multiple disabilities, two students are classified under the category of intellectually disabled, one student is in each category of specific learning impairment and other health impairments. Six of the twelve students in this classroom, six have movement breaks incorporated into their Individualized Education Plan (IEP). The highly qualified special education teacher was questioned about the need or want of physical activity incorporated into her classroom; enthusiastically, she expressed her desire for a successful program incorporating movement during the school day for her students. She had incorporated researched based programs in the past. It was her observation that the students were stimulated more effectively with individualized movement breaks. These sensory stimulation activities included a variety of products and procedures.
Diagnosis for Change
The National Association of School Psychologists declared best practice includes inclusion of these students insuring the least restrictive environment for students. This means students with disabilites be included in the regular education classrooms and with their non-disabled peers as much as possible. Regular education classrooms utilize the techniques of lecture and seat work. This leaves students sitting and sustaining attention for long periods of time, in most cases.
Thirty years ago, “Bloom and his colleagues demonstrated that the average student is capable of performing at a radically higher academic level than s/ he generally does” (Mott & Wiley, 2009; Bloom, 1984). Mott and Wiley (2009) recorded that many educational researchers, including Bloom believed that technology based instructional methods may have the potential to bridge the gap of potential and achieved success among students. However, they concurred that the projected outcomes have failed to do so, despite billions of dollars allotted for the research and utilization of technology to impact instruction and outcomes. Bush and Mott (2009), as noted in Mott and Riley’s (2009) article, “have argued that the failure of technology to transform learning stems from a preoccupation with the tactical implementation of specific technologies which often simply automate the past” and a “more open, flexible, modular, and learning infrastructure”(Mott & Wiley, 2009; Bush & Mott, 2009, p.17).
Summary of Survey Results
A teacher questionnaire was distributed to the highly qualified Special Education teacher. The questionnaire was administered followed by a brief interview to gain the most information possible. A student survey was given to each of the twelve students of the Life Skills classroom. One student was unable to complete the survey. Observations to establish a base line were conducted during the time of main concern established by the response of the teacher. This included first period of the school day. Three observations of percentage of students off task during first period were measured three separate days. The last five minutes of class time was omitted due to the teacher granting free time for students who need extra time to transition to next class. - See Figure 1
The observations illustrate a tendency of students to more likely to be off task in the first half of the period. In the teachers perspective this is an important part of the period. Instructions for the day and period are given during this time. Channel one, a student news station, is played prior to the beginning of class. During the news broadcast, students are expected to remain seated and attend to the programing.
Seventy two percent of students surveyed answered “yes” when asked, “Is it hard for you to sit for long periods of time?” Seven of eleven students reported they believe movement/physical activity breaks are helpful for them to learn. Two students reported they do not believe physical activity breaks help them learn, one student reported that sometimes movement breaks help, and one student reported not knowing if movement breaks helped their learning process. Ten of eleven students surveyed reported they did not participate in physical activities after school noting their time was spent on technology. These Figure 1 students noted video games, Netflix, movie or music videos via television or Apple devices, and computer as their choices of technology.
Proposed Methodology for Implementing Change
It was the primary goal of the team to decrease student time off task, thus increasing learning opportunities to achieve optimal learning experience for each student. It also was intended that class time would be used to systematically increase physical activity of the students of the Life Skills classroom. The need assessments illustrated the student desire for movement breaks to relieve the stress of sustained attention. A need of physical activity during the school day was also exemplified by the students’ response of little to no after school time being devoted towards movement or off-screen activities. Go Noodle was used Monday, Wednesday, and Friday after lunch period by the school psychology intern and, on the alternating days, by the special education teacher. The movement breaks lasted from 10 to 15 minutes each session. In the first session the students were provided with a small water bottle to keep and have the option to refill prior to or after the movement breaks.
Team Development
The team included Mrs. Nagel, Special Instructor of Education; Miss Cramer, licensed practical nurse (LPN), and personal aid to class student; Mrs. Bruce, Specialized instructor, and Miss Hunter as the trainer, facilitator, and data collector; as well as the students in Mrs. Nagel’s first period classroom. This intervention was overseen by the Special Education Coordinator and School Psychologist, Gary Kinnear and Youngstown State University Professor, Dr. Jackson.
Havelock’s Process for Implementing Change
The implementation of this project followed guidelines for change as outlined by Havelock’s The Change Agent’s Guide to Innovation in Education (1995). Stages in Havelock’s procedures for planned change include:
Stage I: Building A Relationship Juliet M. Hunter, School Psychology Intern, established rapport and working relationships with the individuals involved in the change process. This rapport was developed further by the intern being visible within the classroom to both help the teacher and staff, as well as to gain an appreciation of policy, procedures, rules, and norms of this particular class. Visibility of the intern provided an opportunity to team members to inquire or discuss aspects of the process of change. The team agreed that there was a need for an intervention to increase time on task during first period in the Life Skills classroom. In order to gain a better understanding of the culture and type of need, Miss Hunter developed and distributed needs assessment questionnaires for both students and Mrs. Nagel. Miss Hunter analyzed results, set a meeting to discuss results, and brainstorm about the implementation physical activity breaks within the classroom.
Daily contact was made with Mr. Kinnear, Jamestown Area Supervising School Psychologist, to facilitate the process and help ensure success. Contact will be continuous with the team members to discuss the development of the change and processes to implement the change. Suggestions, comments, concerns and questions are and will continue to be encouraged.
Stage II: Diagnosis Prior to distributing a formal needs assessment, informal discussions were conducted with the team of professionals and paraprofessionals with relation to Mrs. Nagel’s first period Life Skills Class. The result of interactions with these individuals determined a need for improving the morning practices currently in place in the Life Skills Classroom. A formal needs assessment was developed to address current need and desire for classroom movement breaks and the need for change within the current procedures. An assessment was distributed to the teacher and returned; an assessment was administered to 12 students, and completed by 11 students. Analysis of these surveys suggested confirmation of the original hypothesis: Go Noodle as a means of a physical activity break may increase time on task of students. The results of the needs assessment suggested that the current daily morning routines were not as effective as she would have liked them to be, and changes needed to be implemented to improve student time on task. This suggested that the majority of individuals participating on the team recognized a need for physical activity breaks and believed that implementing breaks might have been beneficial in alleviating the long periods of time sitting.
Stage III: Acquiring Relevant Resources The primary resources for the initiation and implementation of the change process were identified as the team members, which includes Miss Hunter, School Psychology Intern; Mr. Gary Kinnear, Jamestown Area School District’s School Psychologist and Special Education Coordinator; Mrs. Nagel, Special Education teacher; Miss. Cramer, LPN and personal aide; Mrs. Bruce, Specialized instructor; and the students in Mrs. Nagel’s first period Life Skills classroom. Internet access to the Go Noodle Program and utilization of the White Board, a digital projector with screen, was necessary for implementation. Observation worksheets of student on task behavior created by Miss Hunter for baseline data were utilized for progress monitoring via direct observations over a period of time.
Stage IV: Choosing the Solution Information gathered through informal discussions and a formal needs assessment indicated the need for increased student time on task. As a result, a decision was made that Miss Hunter would research the role of physical activity breaks with relation to time on task, as well as plausible programs for special needs students. The solution agreed upon was Go Noodle. The team proposed that this technology might have been the best fit for their classroom to reduce off-task behaviors. Another benefit was that the program was being projected on the White Board, allowing team members to be accessible to those students with specific needs of assistance.
Stage V: Gaining Acceptance Acceptance was gained through data. Team members were in regular contact to address ideas and questions related to the change process and concerns were addressed immediately.
Stage VI: Stabilizing the Innovation and Generating Self-Renewal Team members discussed the continuation of the process of improving the implementation of physical activity breaks and procedures after the School Psychology Intern has left the district. Mrs. Nagel will be in charge of the plans for continuation and review.
Evaluation Analysis
The present research was conducted with the purpose of assessing the effect of educational kinesiology using Go Noodle ® on disabled students’ time on task. A sample of n=11 students were reported to be in a class that demonstrated increased off task behavior. Participants were both male and female high school students who were classified with a need for special education services. Student survey results revealed the majority of students had little to no structured physical movement activities after school. A majority of students reported afterschool events included sedentary activities, such as watching television or playing video games. Intervention adherence was maintained by collaborations with the special education teacher, the school psychology intern and support staff. The schedule of minimal implementation being three times a week for ten to fifteen minutes was conducted by the school psychology intern. When a snow day occurred, the intervention was administered on a non-scheduled intervention day to assure the students were receiving 30-45 minutes minimum a week. The intervention occurred at the same time each day to increase adherence and integrity. - See Figure 2
Summary of Effectiveness
Measurements were obtained via observations, and surveys both prior to and after the intervention were put into effect. The data were analyzed using PND, Percentage of non-overlapping data, and effect size. Results from this study revealed the educational kinesiology Go Noodle ® intervention having a “highly effective” effect size and a PND to be 100%. The graph below illustrates the pre-intervention observation of the students combined time on task compared to the post intervention observations of time on task.
Plan of Continuation
The junior-senior Life Skills teacher plans to continue to utilize Go Noodle as the program for educational kinesiology in her classroom during the school day. The team met to analyze the data, and the results were positive. Many students expressed their fondness for the movement breaks, each adding excitement to the continual progress of the many benefits of balancing academic rigor with kinesiology daily, including student time on task behavior. The junior/senior high school Life Skills teacher and support staff plan to keep the routine of this intervention with regards to timing and duration. The teacher added she may delve into the other features this particular program may have to offer.
References
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